We are no guiltier in following the primitive impulses that govern us than is the Nile for her flood or the sea for her waves" - La Mettrie

The eighteenth century embraced a secularized France in which the idea of utility, and not of salvation, were the principles by which one lived. Nature and reason in many ways replaced God. What this change left however, was a vacuum for the motive of morality in society. What would compel men to behave if not an omnipresent and all-powering God? The utilitarian idea that the greatest pleasure for the greatest good was able to reconcile the concept of a society questioning her religion but still looking to affirm her old values and moral codes. Many enlightened thinkers like Montesquieu argued for an emphasis on social, over individual welfare, and presented it as a solution left open by this vacuum.

This concept eventually evolved to a redefinition of morality in general. Prior, morality and social laws were frigid and prone to the dictums of the Church. Now, they were accountable to general society, and not the individual's demands. Voltaire writes, " Virtue and vice, moral good and evil, is then in any country what is use

D'Holbarch and Helvitius offered explanations that would be able to deter this line of thinking. They argued that it was only out of self-interest that people would be motivated to act in conformity with society, "We love virtue only for what selfish good it can bring us." This concept of enlightened self-interest reconciled the idea of utility and nature, acting in one's own self-interests, and therefore the greater good of society.

The concept of enlightened self-interest, of selfless selfishness, was bound, however, to be attacked. Rousseau articulates his disagreement, "What is useful to the public is scarcely ever introduced except by force, since private interests are always almost opposed to it." Rousseau argued, quite convincingly, that the individual desires of man usually conflicted with that of society, yet, one was still obliged to subordinate oneself to society and live a moral life. In Emile Rousseau explains, "The wicked man fears himself and runs from himself; his joy comes in throwing himself out of himself." He later continues, "On the contrary, the serenity of the just man is inner; his laughter has no maliciousness, but joy; he carries its source within himself; he is as gay alone as in the midst of a group." Lester Crocker summarizes the efforts enlightened self-interest:

It was inevitable, and logical that the Marquis de Sade would be able to put the inconsistencies enlightened self-interest with La Mettrie's and Rousseau's ideas on the state of nature, society and the individual. Crocker explains, "Sadism is a dark pool formed by those streams of eighteenth century philosophy that flow into it." Sade's philosophy was an inescapable and arguably necessary consequence of the eighteenth century. As much distaste one can acquire for Sade's work and fetishes, it is impossible and naive to ignore him. Many argue that intellectuals prior to him had entertained the notions that he had, they had just been too afraid or embarrassed to publish these ideas. Paris in Sade's time was not the virtuous paradise that D'Holbarch and Helvitius envisioned it would be. The orgies and infamous behavior that Sade would be known for were commonplace in his time. Many critics argue that Sade's only crime was in revealing a side of human nature that no one wanted to acknowledge was there. Sade opened up a Pandora's box, so to speak, of the darker side of humanity.

Sade does not try to find a median or balance between the pursuit of happiness and morality. He agrees in the depravity of mankind, but unlike his contemporaries he does not seek to transcend it, rather he seeks to embrace it. He does not ask us to delude ourselves, but rather accept the meaninglessness and insignificance of nature and the world by confronting it on its own terms.

ful or harmful to society...Virtue is the habit of doing those things which please men, and vice the habit of doing those things which displease men." Consequentially, virtue and vice were not set in stone decrees, but rather arbitrary notions assigned to the whims of society. This idea left no universal law of good and evil. The right of the individual to pursue pleasure and his notions of right and wrong were secondary to his obligation to society. Voltaire explains, "To be good only for oneself is to be good for nothing."

Another proponent in Sade's system was that, "egoistic pleasure was the sole value in a world in which acts are morally indifferent; the greater the pleasure, the greater the value of the act." Coupled with the idea that pleasure is best achieved by subjecting the weak to the strong's desires, the only sense of justice is to do what you desire at the expense of others. Humiliation, degradation and disgrace should all be inflicted on the other to enable a greater sense of pleasure, according to Sade.

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Approximate Word count = 2684
Approximate Pages = 11 (250 words per page double spaced)