Starting as a small popular insurrection against Ferdinanad II of Naples, the rebellion soon took on overtones of Sicilian separatism and grew throughout the island (and throughout almost all other large Italian cities). Piecemeal reforms were not able to satisfy the revolutionaries, both bourgeois and noble, who were determined to create a new, more liberal constitution. In January of 1848, Ferdinand II, King of the Two Sicilies, granted one. Other rulers subsequently followed Ferdinand's example; Leopold II of Tuscany in February, Charles Albert of Sardinia-Piedmont in March, and Pope Pius IX also in March. However, the Austrian government did not bow down to popular pressure that was becomming ever so strong in northern Italy. It reinforced its garrisons in Lombardy-Venetia, arrested the leaders of the opposition in the major northern cities, and violently suppressed student demonstrations in Padova

The Roman Republic, led by Mazzini and Garibaldi, held out until July 3 against a French army sent by Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, the new president of the French Republic, whose restoration of the papacy returned him his Catholic supporters (the pope had been kidnapped by the French but was eventually returned to Rome during their occupation of the Italian city. This was a sly political move done to earn as much Italian support as possible).

Forces of reaction were triumphant across Europe. The revolutions of 1848 were suppressed in Vienna, Prague, Budapest, and Paris. In Naples, the King regained power in an overthrow of the government and reconquered Sicily. In Rome, several obscurantist policies were reintroduced. On the other hand, Venice refused to accept the Salasco armistice and resisted the Austrian siege under Daniele Manin's dictatorship. Leopold II took refuge in Gaeta in 1849 following Montanelli and Guerrazzi's proclaimation of an Italian consituent assembly. Pius IX also fled to Gaeta following a democratic insurgency caused by the assassination of Pellegrino Rossi, a member of the Carbonari. The Roman Republic was finally established on February 5, 1849.

On March 23, Charles Albert officially declared war on Au

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