Deviance is not merely behavior, but involves a moral judgement (Deviance pp). Moreover, in essence, any act can be defined as deviant (Deviance pp). It is not possible to isolate certain acts and find them universally condemned by all societies as deviant acts, not even murder or incest, and even within a given society, behavior defined as deviant continually undergoes redefinition (Deviance pp). Furthermore, it is relative to time and place, thus, it is not possible to find a behavior that is absolutely condemned by all societies, because what is deviant in one society may not be in another, and even within one society, what is deviant today may not be considered deviant next year (Deviance pp). For example, in past centuries, people used to be burned at the stake for engaging in behavior that most people today regard as normal (Deviance pp).

Although murder is generally condemned by society, there are instances, such

of emotional support that continue even when they break the

Often the definition is vague and varies "depending on the culture, audience, and context," thus, behavior alone does not necessarily define a mental disorder (Deviance pp).

Other biological theories look for links between higher rates of aggression in men to levels of testosterone or chromosomal abnormality, however, such research has produced no consistent findings (Deviance pp). Functionalist theories focus on the preservation of social order, and argues that deviance actually helps maintain social cohesion and the collective conscious (Deviance pp).

normal circumstances provide informal sanctions against

rules, or because they break the rules (Kaplan pp).

Joan McCord writes in the "Journal of Studies on Alcohol" that there are several explanations for a possible association between school dropout and underachievement and the development of alcohol use disorders (McCord pp).

A recent study involving deviant and non-deviant participates, revealed that there were no differences in the percentages reporting educational goals, successes, or stresses, however, deviant participants reported a higher rate of bad grades and negative school experiences over the previous three years than did non-deviant participants (Wadsworth pp). The study suggests that the quality of current or recent school experiences is a major factor regarding good verses poor outcomes in the transition to adulthood (Wadsworth pp).

Frederick Thrasher found that there were a greater number of gangs in transitional neighborhoods than in more stable neighborhoods, and noted that the gang is a social creation, a way for people to organize themselves in order to cope with disorganized environments (Deviance pp). A gang offers a substitute for what society has failed to give, and provides relief from suppression and unsatisfactory living conditions, thus, the gang fills a gap and offers an escape at the same time (Deviance pp). Research found that ghetto neighborhoods actually demonstrate a lot of organization, however, it is simply different from that found in middle-class neighborhoods (Deviance pp). One study of active gang members found that ties to family and children were common, and income was generated though gang activities as well as legitimate employment (Dietz pp). Another study analyzed the interactional dynamics of gang member and conventional residents and found benefits such as security in the production of social capital (Dietz pp). Gang members may generate goodwill among residents by sponsoring neighborhood block parties and other local gatherings, and also may provide security at public events (Dietz pp).

Thus, it is hypothesized that students who associate with other students who have adopted contra-normative attitudes and behaviors are more likely to adopt behaviors that will lead to their dropping out of school (Kaplan pp).

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Approximate Pages = 10 (250 words per page double spaced)