Transnational organized crime will be one of the major problems facing policy makers in the 21st century. It will be a defining issue of the 21st century as the Cold War was for the 20th century and Colonialism was for the 19th. No area of international affairs will remain untouched as political and economic systems and the social fabric of many countries will deteriorate under the increasing financial power of international organized crime groups.

(CRIMINAL JUSTICE RESOURCES: Organized Crime)

At present there is no one definitive and comprehensive theory that deals with organized crime. (Handbook of Organized Crime in the United States,

The growth of African-American crime organizations is obviously much more endemic to the society than the above mentioned groups. The development of organized crime in this ethnic category is often divided into three historical categories. These include

...negotiate and connive their way through the vast Communist bureaucracy. Papers were needed to work, to travel, to buy certain consumer goods, to get medical care, to buy a car, to get an apartment. In order to survive, ordinary citizens had to act like criminals; they had to master the intricacies of the corrupt state bureaucracy, learn how to bribe officials, and develop skills in forging and counterfeiting documents. (Kelly 268)

With relatively open borders, Russian crime groups have emigrated into western Europe, Israel, and the United States. But even earlier, during the late 1970s, the Soviet government released criminals from its prisons and commingled them with emigres leaving the USSR. Also, members of Soviet organized crime groups smuggled themselves out of the country, concealed themselves in Israel or various European cities, and later emigrated to the United States. International underground smuggling networks exist that were, and still are, accessible to these criminals. (Kelly 271)

2.4. Hispanic or Latino organized crime

The third theoretical aspect is more relevant to this study and will be shown to manifest itself in the various peculiarities of the different criminal groupings. This refers to the area of illicit enterprise. This aspect has been defined by Dwight C. Smith in The Mafia Mystique as"... the extension of legitimate market activities into the illegitimate demand/supply market. Illicit enterprises satisfy either legitimate or illegitimate demands, but in both cases they do so illegally." (Handbook of Organized Crime in the United States 246)

The history of the growth of Chinese gangs in America can be traced to the general growth of the Chinese population in the country after the enactment of the Immigration and Naturalization Act in 1965. (Handbook of Organized Crime in the United States) There was a subsequent growth in the numbers of Chinese gangs in various areas; including the Chinese communities of New York City, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Boston, and Chicago. (Handbook of Organized Crime in the United States) All of these gangs have connections to the Tongs. Due to this symbiotic relationship, Tongs came to be viewed as criminal enterprises by American law enforcement authorities due to their "...pervasive and consistent involvement in illegal gambling, prostitution, opium trafficking, and violence..." (Handbook of Organized Crime in the United States) An important consequence for American in terms the growth of Chinese organized crime is that after the ceding Honk Kong To China in 1997, and in the light of the harsh punishment meted out to criminal by the Chinese authorities, the criminal groups from Hong Kong have seen regiosn such as the United States and Canada as new "havens" for their activities.

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Approximate Word count = 3170
Approximate Pages = 13 (250 words per page double spaced)