When Brown v. Board of Education was decided in 1954, there was an assumption that desegregation would follow. But desegregation was difficult to achieve in the years immediately following the decision, with highly publicized cases and even a governor--Governor Wallace--ending up in a showdown with the federal government over desegregation. Not surprisingly, desegregation efforts were concentrated in the South, the region where segregation was most obvious and systemic. In the South as well as other parts of the country, initial efforts at desegregation focused on urban areas. Boston, for example, was the site of another fierce desegregation battle focused on busing (Hess, 2001).

The criticism that teachers would be forced to "teach to the test" suggests that such a strategy would inhibit teachers' latitude to take a broad and creative approach to their teaching. Others suggest that "teaching to the test" is precisely what is required if all high school graduates are to have a basic understanding and foundation that gives them a solid footing for college, for the workplace, and to compete effectively with individuals from other countries who might more rigorous standards. Ethical issues arise when states or the federal government attempt to determine what students are required to know, and when teachers may find themselves discouraged from creative teaching. Increasingly, corporations are also dictating some curricula in high schools, particularly with regard to economics that favor corporations and free-market slants, and this is likely to continue if national testing is put into place (Maier, 2002).

From a societal standpoint, employers and educational institutions benefit from a highly educated populace. Employers gain access to workers who are technically literate as well as literate in the traditional sense, and who have the learning that is necessary to compete in an increasingly global market. Educational institutions are interested in maintaining their enrollment rates so that they are able to reap the economic benefits that accrue from tuition and fees, as well as the prestige that comes from strong research programs. Increasingly, private industry and educational institutions are co-operating on projects to the extent that private industry funds specific research programs; this also demands higher enrollment in order to have the researchers available to work on these projects ("Free," 2005).

With such a close relationship between business and higher education, colleges and universities may well feel pressure to produce research results that are favorable to the businesses funding that research. In addition, when companies pay for education for students, as is happening at many companies, there can be pressure to keep grades high for such students since companies are not paying for their students to fail. Rather than demand academic excellence, some institutions may favor relaxing their standards for working professionals in order to maintain the close relationship with the business commun

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