Socrates believed that to do wrong is to damage one's soul, and that this is the worst thing one can do. Also it is always worse to do wrong than to be wronged, and that one must never return wrong for wrong. Socrates also maintained that virtue is knowledge, called the Socratic paradox, and therefore no one can do wrong in full knowledge. Socrates also insisted on being given a definition that universally covers its subject. This was of the greatest importance for the subsequent development of philosophy because it led to the concept of a

Aristotle believed in logic, the theory of formal truth and validity, which originated in reflections on the practice of dialectic, the kind of debate found in Plato's dialogues. Dialogue was regarded as the appropriate form for philosophical arguments, and hence the acquisition of dialectical skill was regarded as crucial for students of philosophy. In the Prior and Posterior Analytics Aristotle tried to work out which kind of premises are needed to gain scientific knowledge and which formal conditions an argument must satisfy to be incontestably valid. According to the Posterior Analytics, the ultimate premises or principles of a science are necessary truths. Human knowledge of these truths is based on experience; it is not itself a matter of experience, however, but rather of reason. When a subject is sufficiently familiar, its governing principles become evident to reason. Deduction from t

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