When confronted with a phobic object or situation an individual appears to have little control and no alternative but to avoid the feared object or situation (Ohman & Soares, 1993). Consequently, individuals with a phobia can be vulnerable to anxiety induced automatic reactions to an object or situation which in turn can place major restrictions on everyday life (Ohman & Soares, 1993). Phobias are characterised as a conditioned reaction that is specific, persistent, intense and irrational with a compelling need to avoid the phobic object or situation (Reber, 1995). The majority of phobias concentrate on a small number of fear inducing stimuli such as snakes, spiders, heights, thunder and confined spaces. These biological stimuli are more likely to develop into a phobia than non-biological stimuli such as firearms, broken glass and motor cars, even though humans are more likely to have an aversive experience with non-biological stimuli. Preparedness theory was introduced by Seligman (1971) whereby the concept of preparedness attempts to ex

To provide evidence of his theory, Seligman draws on a study conducted by Garcia & Koelling (1966, cited in Bourne & Russo, 1998 & McNally, 1987), on water-deprived rats. Rats were fed sweetened tasting water while a bright light flashed and a noise sounded. At the same time, rats in one group received electric shock to the feet and the rats in the other group were treated with X-ray radiation to cause nausea and illness. When the rats became ill a few hours later, they acquired an aversion to sweet tasting water but not to light or noise. According to Seligman (1970, cited in McNally, 1987), evolution had prepared the rats to associate taste with illness, but had contra-prepared the association between noise/light and illness. These outcomes confirmed the view that the associations in classical conditioning are not arbitrary and some connections are more readily formed than others (Bourne & Russo, 1998). In a classical conditioning paradigm, organisms may be prepared to form certain CS-US associations and contra-prepared to develop others. When the rats learn taste aversion to food causing illness the association is easily formed, but when the taste aversion to food is paired with foot shock it is difficult to form (Bourne & Russo, 1998). Ohman & Soares (1993) claim that in Seligman's model (1971) when applied to phobias represent CR's and suggest that organisms have been formed by evolution to readily associate anxiety and aversion with potentially deadly situations.

Marks, I.M. (1989). Learning of fear. In I.M. Marks, Fears, Phobias and Rituals, New York, Oxford University Press.

Schwartz, B. & Robbins, S.J. (1995). Psychology of Learning & Behavior. 4th Ed. New York, W.W. Norton & Company.

Davey, G. (1995). Preparedness and Phobias: Specific evolved associations or a generalised expectancy bias?, Behavioral and Brain Science,s 18 (2), 289-325

Lovibond, Siddle & Bond (1993) provide experimental data that reveals the uncertain effectiveness of biologically prepared stimuli for human fear conditioning. The results of their study support their hypothesis that such stimuli owe their effectiveness not to associative processes but to selective sensitisation. Lovibond et al (1993) report on experiments by Ohman, Eriksson, Fredriksson, Hugdahl & Olofsson (1974, cited in Lovibond et al, 1993) that prior to conditioning taking place, FR stimuli elicited larger electrodermal responses than FI stimuli. Further, the threat of electric shock noticeably enhanced the difference. Lovibond et al (1993) refer to the increase in electrodermal responding to all stimuli after shock threat, as sensitisation and selective sensitisation is defined as the differential increase in responding to FR stimuli. Lovibond et al (1993) maintain that selective sensitisation may account for previous reports of resistance to e

Some common words found in the essay are:
According Seligman, Bourne Russo, Ohman Soares, Hugdahl Olofsson, According Marks, According Davey, Conditioning FR, Schwartz Robbins, According Ohman, Siddle Bond, preparedness theory, classical conditioning, marks 1989, bourne russo, russo 1998, bourne russo 1998, mcnally 1987, et al, seligman 1971, davey 1995, lovibond et al, neutral stimulus, et al 1993, ohman soares 1993, seligman 1970 cited,
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