Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1960.

Rutland, Robert Allen. The Presidency of James Madison.

Following the Civil War, the U.S. government was faced with a challenge unparalleled in American history. Never before had the government been put in the position to put back together a war-ravaged country. Several problems became evident quickly. Were the Southern states ever really out of the union? If so, how would they be readmitted and whose job was it to decide? Next, what was to become of the estimated four million slaves that now were to be considered free? Initially, Abraham Lincoln came to shoulder these responsibilities. But, when a bullet ended Lincoln's life, an unexpecting Andrew Johnson was given this arduous task. Following much of Lincoln's proposed plans, Johnson demanded certain stipulations in order for states to be readmitted into the Union. He felt strongly that it was his sole responsibility to reorganize the South. Yet, when Johnson was put into office, there were no southerners in Congress in 1865 thereby providing him with zero support. Many were amazed at how daring he was considering his position. He was enacting legislation extremely capriciously. One Radical said that he was convinced that all he said was weighed and measured, and meant to bring about certain results. Many were outraged that their towns were turned into military districts. The officials in these towns were seen as rulers without responsibility, in unchecked control of the material resources of a people with whom they had not a sentiment or interest in common. Northerners were in great fear that they were in jeopardy of losing back what they had fought so hard to gain. Johnson at one point even declared reorganization over and Congress became infuriated. Johnson, similar to Wilson, was not prepared to tackle such an ominous challenge. He could only see the problems created by the war from a single perspective. He tried to veto many of the acts but Congress kept passing over him. Because he persisted in his vision, it seemed clear that Johnson had to go. His unwillingness to compromise led to his impeachment on the basis of high crimes and misdemeanors. Granted, Johnson was dealt a poor hand to begin with. But, he did not allow more able and influential men to handle some of the negotiations confronting reconstruction. His lack of preparation, lack of ability, and stubbornness played a hand in the ultimate failure of Reconstruction.

heir own behalf concerning times of dispute. Consequently, the results have varied. So, it must be asked, what method has proven to be most effective? An analysis of several major American wars and their respective peacetime results supports the view that those who elect negotiating bodies and communicate through them have been more effective in achieving their goals.

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Approximate Word count = 2682
Approximate Pages = 11 (250 words per page double spaced)