To understand the role and/or goals of affirmative actions programs we should define what affirmative action is and what caused its development. The phrase "affirmative action" was used in a racial discrimination context. Affirmative action "refers to various efforts to deliberately take race, sex, and national origins into account to remedy past and current effects of discrimination. Its primary goal is to ensure that women and minorities are widely represented in all occupations and at all organizational levels" Another definition of affirmativ

ications, they should be less likely to assume that he or she was hired solely on race or gender". By making this information available within the organization, it would help remove the pressures from the employee and co-workers regarding the hiring practices. This could further help the organization in the area of productivity, public relations within the community, and morale.

Academy of Management Executive, 12 (1), 88-92.

Opponents of affirmative action won a landmark victory, in 1998, with the passage of California's Proposition 209. This proposition abolished all public-sector affirmative action programs in the state in employment, education, and contracting. Prop. 209 permits gender discrimination that is "reasonably necessary" to the "normal operation" of public education, employment, and contracting. In 1998, The ban on use of affirmative action in admissions at the University of California went into effect. UC Berkeley had a 61% drop in admissions, and UCLA had a 36% decline. This decline strengthens the position of affirmative action.

Through outreach programs like the ones mentioned, goals could be attained to achieve equity and representation without forgoing higher educated and skilled applicants.

F.S. Hall & M.H. Albrecht (1979). The Management of Affirmative Action. California: Goodyear Publishing

With that being said, women and minorities cannot possibly have a fair chance in today's society without positive affirmative action programs. However, with affirmative action, it has been noted that their incentives to achieve success may be decreased because "preferential treatment can lead to the patronization of minorities and women workers and students. By "patronization" I mean the setting of a lower standard of expected accomplishment because of the belief that these people are not as capable of meeting a higher standard". With a white male dominated workforce, negative public perceptions, and low self-esteem of applicants due to their race, sex, or color, affirmative action offers a solution for race and gender equity.

F.S. Hall & M.H. Albrecht (1979). The Management of Affirmative Action. California: Goodyear Publishing

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Nathan Glazer (1998). In Defense of Preference. The New Republic, 218 (14), 18-25.

Ultimately, the controversy surrounding affirmative action programs today will continue into the future. Society as a whole does not appear to be ready to relinquish its negative perception of the hiring practices brought about by Title VII. However, the benefits brought about by this act have greatly increased the opportunity for women and minorities in employment that may not have otherwise been available. These programs have offered hope to some if not all-protected class

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