To best comprehend human behavior in organizations, we must first understand the behaviors of society. With all the efforts our society has placed towards creating better equality for all, we must wonder why there are still few women in high-level positions within organizations. Unfortunately, women are disproportionately represented in upper-managerial and governmental positions. There are a number of theoretical perspectives concerning this phenomenon. Two perspectives, functionalist and conflict theories, exhibit the different sociological views prevalent in today's society.

Within the past thirty years, women throughout the United States have made great strides in the labor force. Since 1950, female participation in the labor force has grown from 34% to 60%. However, women constitute less than 8% of all upper-managerial, administrative, and governmental positions (Bartlett and Miller, 1985). This overall trend shows an increase of female managers in the United States, however, they are generally lower-managerial positions. For example, women may manage an individual grocery store such as "Food Lion" but are rarely district man

re female but, only 6.4% of them are in executive positions (Gutek, 1993).

Jacobs, R.L. and McCelland, D.C. (1994). Moving Up the Corporate

Why do males continue to dominate most upper levels of organizations throughout America? From a conflict perspective, the answer lies in the utilization of the agents of socialization that are dominated by the gender-class in power. These agents, which socialize our culture, and thus organizations, are the media, family, education, religion, and peer groups. The dominant agents of socialization are media and education. Women are too often portrayed as sex symbols in the marketing of goods and services and in their portrayal in TV programs, movies, etc. This perception of women is manifested in the minds of everyone and is reflected at all levels of professional organizations. The attractiveness of women is a benefit for some and a hindrance for others. Attractive women are usually hired easier, conversely, unattractive women find it more difficult to find employment. However, it is the women with the more masculine traits and attributes who are promoted more quickly!

Functionalism, a macro-sociological perspective, explains the large-scale social patterns concerning the lack of women in upper-managerial positions within organizations. "Studies found that attributes associated with the traditional feminine sex role (e.g. emotional, dependent, passive) were incompatible with the characteristics desirable for a manager" (Jacobs and McCelland, 1994). According to the functionalist perspective, women serve society better in traditional female gender roles. These gender roles create many unpaid tasks for women such as child-care, housework, etc, and maintain society's general consensus. Therefore, for women to attain upper-level managerial positions, they must step "outside" their traditional gender roles that society has placed upon them (Gutek, 1993). Today's society is slowly becoming more androgynous, but a cultural lag still perpetuates the slowly increasi

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