Gladiatorial duels had originated from funeral games given in order to satisfy the dead man's need for blood, and for centuries their principle occasions were funerals. The first gladiatorial combats therefore took place at the graves of those being honored, but once they became public spectacles they moved into amphitheaters (Dining 83). As for the gladiators themselves, an aura of religious

The teaching of gladiators was highly elaborate affair involving expertise appreciated by those members of the public who attended the games for something more than blood and thrills. Gladiators were trained at gladiator schools established during the late Republic at the time of Sulla 138-78 BC (Dining 86). Novices practiced with wooden swords on a man of straw or a wooden post. The weapons used in more adept practice were heavier than those used in the arena. Discipline was severe, with ruthless punishments. The barracks they lived in were so low inmates could only sit or lie (Grant 68). Breaking any rules was not tolerated and resulted in strict reprimanding: shackles, flogging or even death (Dining 86). The main objective of the schools were to produce the best possible fighters for the arena, thus scrupulous attention was invested in gladiator health. Their schools were situated in favorable climates, and equipped with first class doctors. The schools were also provided with resident medical consultants to check the men's diet. Gladiators were called hordearii (barley men) because of the amount of barley that they ate, a muscle building food (Weirdmann 111).

Jory, E. Gladiators in the Theatre. Classical Quarterly v36 537-9, 1986.

Weirdmann, T. Emperors and Gladiators. London: Routledge Press, 1992

Koestler, A. The Gladiators. New York: Macmillan, 1947.

Gladiatorial shows were intensively promoted and advertised to raise public attention. Descriptions of upcoming contests appeared on walls and on the gravestones beside main roads. The opening ceremonies began the day before the fights. It was then that the supporter of the show donated a splendid feast to the contestants about to appear on the following day. The proceedings of the murderous day began with a chariot drive and parade. Led and presented by the sponsor of the games. The gladiators displayed themselves in uniforms topped by cloaks dyed purple with gold embroidery. Climbing down their chariots, they marched around the arena, followed by slaves carrying their arms and armor. Gladiators, especially those who belonged to the emperor's own troop, were often finely equipped. When the combatants arrived opposite the emperor's platform, they extended their right hands towards him and cried "Ave, imperator, morituri te salutant" (Hail, emperor, greetings from men about to die!) (Jory 538).

From Republican times onward, foreign prisoners were made to fight with their own weapons and in their own styles. Many of these men, were merely prisoners herded into the arena, but various classes of professional gladiators likewise came from this category. Such, for example was the origin of the gladiators known as the Samnites. Generally regarded as the prototypes of all Rome's gladiators, they are said to have come into existence after its Samnite enemies introduced a splendid new type of military equipment in 310 BC. Gladiators were ranked in different categories according to their fighting style and the type of weapon they used. Samnites wore the heavy, magnificent armor of soldiers. It included a large shield (scutum), a leather or partly metal greave (ocrea) on the left leg, and a visored helmet (galea) with huge crests and plumes. To these were added sword (gladius) or lance (hasta), and the sleeve on the right arm, which was part of a gladiator's general equipment (Mattingly 121). Sectores were armed with a sword and mace loaded with lead. Thraces carried a curved scimitar of varying shape, and a small square or round shield. Myrmilliones ('Guals') carried a shield and a short scythe and wore a distinctive fish ornament on their helmets. The Retiarii were exceptionally uncovered, except sometimes for a headband.

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