In 1961 John F. Kennedy issued an executive order calling for Affirmative Action as a means to promote equal opportunity for racial minorities, in hiring by federal contractors. This was the first official use of the term by the Federal Government. Eight years later Nixon as President beefed up the Office of Federal Compliance Programs, which along with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission has become one of the government two main enforcers of affirmative action policy.(Grolier's Electronic Encyclopedia, 1993)

Such efforts have vastly expanded opportunities for Afro-Americans. However they have also touched off complaints from many whites that Afro-Americans are benefiting from reverse discrimination. Under the equal opportunity act of 1972 most federal contractors, subcontractors, all state and government institutions (including universities) must initiate plans to increase the proportions of their female and minority employees until they are equal to the proportions existing in the available labor market.(Grolier's Electric Encyclopedia, 19

Then on Thursday July 8, 1995, the California University System Board of Regents adopted a plan to dismantle affirmative action plans within the university system.

The regents decision was hailed as an "Historical achievement" by Republican Governor Pete Wilson. Wilson responded to White House Chief of Staff's Leon Panetta's contentions that the board of regents made a terrible mistake and that the Justice Department would begin a review of the billions of dollars that flow from the federal government into the states' universities, by claiming that the state will not be intimidated by the implicit threat of losing the huge largess in student aid and research funds that the university receives. The university would follow through with the dismantling of the programs because, they were wrong and unfair.(NY Times, July 22 1995, pp.7)

segregated job categories. Then in 1984 and 1986 the justices ruled against upsetting seniority systems in favor of minorities.(Harper's Magazine, July 1991, pp.27)

On the side of those who favor Affirmative Action and would like for it to remain a part of California's school system are many optimistic voices. Affirmative

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