One particular aspect of the Enlightenment was that of enlightened despotism. Among the many examples of "enlightened" rulers of Europe, the best include Joseph II of Austria, Frederick II of Prussia, and Catherine II of Russia; rulers that would utilize their power to impose the rational reforms and ideals of the enlightenment. And the philosophers, of course, considered themselves to be the proper people to advise these enli

ghtened leaders. Ironically, no French ruler was ever regarded by the French philosophers as "enlightened". Traits generally shared by the enlightened despots included an authoritarian rule justified by usefulness to society, a secular outlook complemented by religious toleration, and impatience with custom and tradition, (Doyle 49-55). Whether the enlightened despots actually fulfilled the ideals in which they said they believed - and of which the philosophers believed them capable - is an issue that brings up much ambiguity and controversy, and allows for the redefining of Napoleon Bonaparte as among these enlightened despots of Europe and the 18th and 19th century.

Balanced against these considerations, each of which is and has been susceptible to various interpretations throughout the years that are different from what is suggested by both Palmer and Colton, there are those elements of Napoleon's career and personality that could be used to refute the idea of Napoleon as an enlightened despot. The supposed megalomania, the family ambition, the selfish and narrow policies that he pursued in some of his economic, diplomatic, and certainly military activities all point to the conclusion that Napoleon's "...aims had always been profoundly selfish: Power and glory for himself and his family," (as stated in The Western Heritage by Donald Kagan, Steven Ozment, and Frank M. Turner).

What the French Revolution essentially did was to dissolve the old social order completely. Everyone was a citizen and the "Rights of Man" were proclaimed based upon the principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity. This indiscriminate sweeping away of past occurrences, however idealistic, also had the effect of removing important sources of constraint upon potential new rulers. Further, those in power governed according to abstract principles and merely interpreted laws by their own reasoning ability without the accumulated wisdom of the past or tradition to guide them. What resulted was that for the sake of the Rights of Man, the rights of individuals could be trampled on. Thus, inherent in the people's plan were flaws. The result of which was the Reign of Terror, complete political chaos, social anarchy, mob rule, and, finally, the supposed restoration of order through Napoleon in 1799, (Marshal, 18).

Napoleon was exiled to the island of St. H

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