The Vikings were often described as "dire portents" and the Viking raids as "immense whirlwinds ... flashes of lighting...and fiery dragons...flying in the air". The Viking raids had begun. The earliest raids were carried out by Norwegians. Their immediate consequences were beyond dispute: material loss, humiliation for men and women (rape figures as well as murder).
Regarding the linguistic consequences, the Scandinavian influx left its mark on English place-names. Common Scandinavian place-names elements are by "village, homestead" as in
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